Folk Lore
or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland within This Century
by James Napier
written late nineteenth century
The doctrine taught concerning Satan, his motives and influence in the beginning
of this century, supplied the popular mind with reasons to account for almost
all the evils, public and private, which befell society; and as the observed
ills of life, real or imaginary, greatly outnumbered the observed good
occurrences, the thought of Satan was more constantly before the people's mind
than was the thought of God. Practically, it might be said, and said with a very
near approach to truth, that Satan, in popular estimation, was the greater of
the two; but theoretically, the superiority of God was allowed, for Satan it was
believed, was permitted by God to do what he did. It was commonly said, "Never
speak evil of the Deil, for he has a long memory." This Satanic belief gave rise
to a great amount of Folk Lore, and affected the whole social system. Historians
who take no account of such beliefs, but regard them as trivialities, cannot but
fail to represent faithfully the condition and action of the people. Folk Lore
has thus an important historical bearing. Every age has had its own living Folk
Lore, and, beside this, a residuum of waning lore, regarded as superstitious,
and so it is at the present day. When we speak of the Folk Lore of our
grandfathers and great-grandfathers, we believe that we are speaking of beliefs
which have past away, beliefs from which we ourselves are free; but if we
consider the matter carefully we will find that in many respects our beliefs and
practices, although somewhat modernized, are essentially little different from
those of last century. Among the
better educated classes it may be said that much of the superstitions of former
times have passed away, and as education is extended they will
more and more become eradicated; but at present, in our rural districts
especially, the old beliefs still linger in considerable force. Many think that
the superstitions of last century died with the century, but this is not so; and
as these notions are curious and in many respects important historical factors,
I have thought it worth while to jot down what of this Folk Lore has come under
my observation during these last sixty years.
In this collection I do not profess to include all that may come under the head
of Folk Lore, such, for example, as the reading of dreams and cups, spaeing
fortunes by cards or other methods--that class of superstitions by which
designing persons prey upon weak-minded people.
One principal object which I had in view in forming this collection, was that it
might supply a nucleus for the further development of the subject. The instances
which I have adduced belong to one locality, the West of Scotland, and
chiefly the neighbourhood west of Glasgow, but different localities have
different methods of formulating the same superstition. By comparison, by
separation of the local accretion from the constant element, an approach to the
original source and meaning of a superstition may be obtained.
I have hope that the Folk Lore Society, just instituted, will consider such
details and variations, and endeavour to trace their history and origin, and
fearlessly give prominence to the still existing superstitions, and exhibit
their degrading influence on society.
The primary object of the following short treatise is to give an account of some
of those superstitions, now either dead or in their decadence, but which, within
the memory of persons now living, had a vigorous existence, at least in the West
of Scotland. A secondary object shall be to trace out, where I think I can
discover ground for so doing, the origin of any particular superstition, and in
passing I may notice the duration in time and geographical distribution of some
superstitions. But, on the threshold of our inquiry, it may be of advantage to
pause and endeavour to reach a mutual understanding of the precise meaning of
the word Superstition--a word apparently, from the varied dictionary renderings
given of it, difficult to define. However we may disagree in our definitions of
the word, we all agree in regarding a superstitious tone of mind as weak and
foolish, and as no one desires to be regarded as weak-minded or foolish, we
naturally repel from ourselves as best we can the odious imputation of being
superstitious. There are few who seek to know what superstition in its essence
really is; most people are satisfied to frame an answer to suit their own case,
and so it happens that we have a multiplicity of definitions for the word, many
of which are devoid of scientific solidity, and others have not even the merit
of intelligibility. A recent definition, extremely elastic, was propounded by a
popular preacher in a lecture delivered before the Glasgow Young Men's Christian
Association and reported in the newspapers,--"Superstition is Scepticism," which
may be legitimately paraphrased "Superstition is not believing what I believe."
Although this definition may be very gratifying to the self pride of most of us,
we must nevertheless reject it, and look for a more definite and instructive
signification, and for this end we may very properly consult the meanings given
in several standard dictionaries and lexicons, for in them we expect to find
precision of statement, although in this instance I believe we shall be
disappointed. Theophrastus, who lived several centuries before the Christian
era, defines "Superstition" according to the translation given of his definition
in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, as "A cowardly
state of mind with respect to the supernatural," and supplies the
following illustration: "The superstitious man is one, who, having taken
care to wash his hands and sprinkle himself in the temple, walks about
during the day with a little laurel in his mouth, and if he meets a
weasel on the road, dares not proceed on his way till some person has
passed, or till he has thrown three stones across the road."
Under "Superstition," in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, the following
definitions are given:--
1st.--Excess of scruple or ceremony in matters of religion: idle
worship: vain reverence: a superfluous, needless, or
ill-governed devotion.
2nd.--Any religious observance contrary to, or not sanctioned by,
Scripture or reason.
3rd.--All belief in supernatural agency, or in the influence of
casual occurrences, or of natural phenomena on the destinies
of man which has no foundation in Scripture, reason, or
experience.
4th.--All attempts to influence the destiny of man by methods which
have no Scriptural or rational connection with their object.
Walker's Dictionary:--
"Unnecessary fear or scruple in religion: religion without
morality: false religion: reverence of beings not properly objects
of reverence: over-nicety: exactness: too scrupulous."
Chambers' Dictionary:--
"A being excessive (in religion) over a thing as if in wonder or
fear: excessive reverence or fear: excessive exactness in religious
opinions and practice: false worship or religion: the belief in
supernatural agency: belief in what is absurd without evidences:
excessive religious belief."
These dictionary meanings do not, of course, attempt to decide what
should be the one only scientifically correct significance of the term,
but only supply the varying senses in which the word is used in
literature and in common speech, but they suffice to show that it is
used by different persons with different significations, each person
apparently gauging first his own position, and defining superstition as
something which cannot be brought to tell against himself.
After pondering over the various renderings, it occurred to me that the
following definition would embrace the whole in a few words: Religion
founded on erroneous ideas of God. But when I set this definition
alongside the case of an otherwise intelligent man carrying in his
trousers' pocket a raw potato as a protection against rheumatism, and
alongside the case of another man carrying in his vest pocket a piece of
brimstone to prevent him taking cramp in the stomach; and when I
consider the case of ladies wearing earrings as a preventive against, or
cure for, sore eyes; and, again, when I remembered a practice, very
frequent a few years ago, of people wearing what were known as galvanic
rings in the belief that these would prevent their suffering from
rheumatism, I could not perceive any direct connection between such
superstitious practices and religion, and the construction of a new
definition was rendered necessary. The following, I think, covers the
whole ground: Beliefs and practices founded upon erroneous ideas of God
and nature. With this meaning the term "Superstition" is employed in
the following pages, and if the definition commend itself to the reader,
it will at once become apparent that the only way by which freedom from
superstition can be attained is to search Nature and Revelation for
correct views of God and His methods of working. Notwithstanding our
pretensions to a correct religious knowledge, a pure theology, and
freedom from everything like superstition, it is strange yet true, that,
if we except the formulated reply to the question in the Westminster
Catechism, "What is God," scarcely two persons--perhaps no two
persons--have exactly the same idea of God. We each worship a God of our
own. In one of the late Douglas Jerrold's "Hedgehog Letters" he
introduces two youths passing St Giles' Church at a lonely hour, when
the one addresses the other thus:--"The old book and the parson tell us
that at the beginning God made man in his own image. We have now
reversed this, and make God in our image." A sad truth, although not
new; Saint Paul made a similar remark to the philosophic Athenians; but
the remark applies not to this age or to Saint Paul's age alone--its
applicability extends to every age and every people. As Goethe remarks,
"Man never knows how anthropomorphic he is." Our minds instinctively
seek an explanation of the cause or causes of the different phenomena
constantly occurring around us, but instinct does not supply the
solution. Only by patient watching and consideration can this be arrived
at; but in former ages scientific methods of investigation were either
not known, or not cared for, and so men were satisfied with merely
guessing at the causes of natural phenomena, and these guesses were made
from the standpoint of their own human passionate intelligence.
Alongside the intelligence everywhere observable in the operations of
nature they placed their own passionate humanity, they projected
themselves into the universe and anthropomorphised nature. Thus came men
to regard natural phenomena as manifestations of supernatural agency;
as expressions of the wrath or pleasure of good or evil genii, and
although in our day we have made great advances in our knowledge of
natural phenomena, the majority of men still regard the ways of
providence from a false standpoint, a standpoint erected in the
interests of ecclesiasticism. Churchmanship acts as a distorting medium,
twisting and displacing things out of their natural relations, and
although this influence was stronger in the past than it is now, still
there remains a considerable residuum of the old influence among us yet.
For example, we are not yet rid of the belief that God has set apart
times, places, and duties as specially sacred, that what is not only
sinless but a moral obligation at certain times and places becomes
sinful at other times and places. Ecclesiastical influence thus
familiarises us with the distinctions of secular and sacred, and we hear
frequent mention made of our duties to God and our duties to man, of our
religious duties and our worldly duties, and we frequently hear religion
spoken of as something readily distinguishable from business. But not
only are these things separated by name from one another, they are often
regarded as opposites, having no fellowship together. Hence has arisen
in many minds a slavish fear of performing at certain times and in
certain places the ordinary duties of life, lest by so doing they anger
God. In certain conditions of society such belief, erroneous though it
be, may have served a useful purpose in restraining, and thereby so far
elevating a rude people, just as now we may see many among ourselves
restrained from evil, and influenced to the practice of good, by beliefs
which, to the enlightened among us, are palpable absurdities.
Before reviewing the superstitious beliefs and practices of our
immediate forefathers, we may, I think, profitably occupy a short time
in gaining some general idea of the prominent features of ancient Pagan
religions, for without doubt much of the mythology and superstitious
practice of our forefathers had a Pagan origin. I shall not attempt any
exhaustive treatise on this subject, for the task is beyond me, but a
slight notice of ancient theology may not here be irrelevant. The late
George Smith, the eminent Assyriologist, says:--
"Upwards of 2000 years B.C. the Babylonians had three great gods--Anu, Bel, and Hea. These three leading deities formed members of twelve
gods, also called great. These were--
1. Anu, King of Angels and Spirits. Lord of the city Eresh.
2. Bel, Lord of the world, Father of the Gods, Creator. Lord of the
city of Nipur.
3. Hea, Maker of fate, Lord of the deep, God of wisdom and knowledge.
Lord of the city of Eridu.
4. Sin, Lord of crowns, Maker of brightness. Lord of the city Urr.
5. Merodash, Just Prince of the Gods, Lord of birth. Lord of the
city Babylon.
6. Vul, the strong God, Lord of canals and atmosphere. Lord of the
city Mura.
7. Shama, Judge of heaven and earth, Director of all. Lord of the
cities of Larsa and Sippara.
8. Ninip, Warrior of the warriors of the Gods, Destroyer of wicked.
Lord of the city Nipur.
9. Nergal, Giant King of war. Lord of the city Cutha.
10. Nusku, Holder of the Golden Sceptre, the lofty God.
11. Belat, Wife of Bel, Mother of the great Gods. Lady of the city
Nipur.
12. Ishtar, Eldest of Heaven and Earth, Raising the face of warriors.
"Below these deities there were a large body of gods, forming the bulk of
the Pantheon; and below these were arranged the Igege or angels of
heaven; and the anunaki or angels of earth; below these again came
curious classes of spirits or genii, some were evil and some good."
The gods of the Greeks were numbered by thousands, and this at a time
when--according to classical scholars--the arts and sciences were at
their highest point of development in that nation. Their religion was of
the grossest nature. Whatever conception they may have had of a first
cause--a most high Creator of heaven and earth--it is evident they did
not believe he took anything to do directly with man or the phenomena of
nature; but that these were under the immediate control of
deputy-deities or of a conclave of divinities, who possessed both divine
and human attributes--having human appetites, passions, and affections.
Some of these were local deities, others provincial, others national,
and others again phenomenal: every human emotion, passion and affection,
every social circumstance, public or private, was under the control or
guardianship of one or more of these divinities, who claimed from men
suitable honour and worship, the omission of which honour and worship
was considered to be not only offensive to the divinities, but as likely
to be followed by punishment. The vengeance of the deities was thought
to be avertable by the performance of certain propitiatory deeds, or by
offering certain sacrifices. The kind of sacrifice required had relation
to the particular department over which the divinity was supposed to be
guardian; and these deeds and sacrifices were in many cases most gross
and offensive to morality. The phenomena of nature, being under the
direction of one or more divinities, every aspect of nature was regarded
as an expression of anger or pleasure on the part of the divinities.
Thunder, lightning, eclipses, comets, drought, floods, storms--anything
strange or terrible, the cause of which was not understood, was ascribed
to the wrath of some divinity; and men hastened to propitiate, as best
they might, the divinities who were supposed to be scourging or
threatening them. These deputy-gods were supposed to occupy the space
between the earth and moon, and, being almost numberless and invisible,
their worshippers held them in the same dread as if they possessed the
attribute of omniscience.
For the purpose of guiding men in their relations towards these gods,
there existed a large body of men whose office it was to understand the
divinities, their natures and attributes, and direct men in their
religious duties. This body of men acted as mediums between the gods and
the people, and not only were they held in high esteem as priests, but
frequently they attained great power in the State. Often this priestly
incorporation had greater influence and control than the civil power;
nor is this to be wondered at, when we remember that they were supposed
to be in direct communication with the holy gods, in whose hands were
the destinies of men.
The sun, the giver and vivifier of all life, was the primary god of
antiquity, being worshipped by Assyrians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, and
Hebrews under the name of Baal or Bell, and by other nations under other
names. The priests of Baal always held a high position in the State. As
the sun was his image or symbol in heaven, so fire was his symbol on
earth, and hence all offerings made to Baal were burned or made to pass
through the fire, or were presented before the sun. Wherever, in the
worship of any nation, we find the fire element, we may at once suspect
that there we have a survival of ancient sun-worship.
The moon was regarded as a female deity, consort of the sun or Baal, and
was worshipped by the Jews under the name of Ashtoreth, or Astarte. Her
worship was of the most sensual description. The worship of sun and moon
formed one system, the priests of the one being also priests of the
other.
Apart from the priestly incorporation of which we have spoken, there was
another class of men who assumed knowledge of supernatural phenomena.
These were known as astrologers or star-gazers, wizards, magicians,
witches, sooth-sayers. By the practice of certain arts and repetition of
certain formula, these pretended to divine and foretell events both of a
public and private nature. They were believed in by the mass of people,
and were consulted on all sorts of matters. By both the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities their practices and pretensions were
sometimes condemned, and themselves forbidden to exercise their peculiar
gifts, but nevertheless the people continued to believe in them and
consult them. Their pretensions were considerable, extending even to
raising and consulting the spirits of the dead.
This leads me to notice the ancient belief concerning the souls of the
departed. By almost all nations, Jews and Gentiles, there was a
prevailing belief that at death the souls of good men were taken
possession of by good spirits and carried to Paradise, but the souls of
wicked men were left to wander in the space between the earth and moon,
or consigned to Hades, or Unseen World. These wandering spirits were in
the habit of haunting the living, especially their relations, so that
the living were surrounded on every side by the spirits of their wicked
ancestors, who were always at hand tempting them to evil. However, there
were means by which these ghosts might be exorcised. A formula for
expelling wicked spirits is given by Ovid in Book V. of the Fasti:--
"In the dread silence of midnight, upon the eighth day of May, the
votary rises from his couch barefooted, and snapping his fingers as a
sure preventative against meeting any ghost during his subsequent
operations, thrice washing his hands in spring water, he places nine
black beans in his mouth, and walks out. These he throws behind him one
by one, carefully guarding against the least glance backwards, and at
each cast he says, 'With these beans I ransom myself and mine.' The
spirits of his ancestors follow him and gather the beans as they fall.
Then, performing another ablution as he enters his house, he clashes
cymbals of brass, or rather some household utensil of that metal,
entreating the spirits to quit his roof. He then repeats nine times
these words, 'Avaunt ye ancestral manes.' After this he looks behind,
and is free for one year."
Some nations in addition to a personal formula for laying the ghosts of
departed relatives, had a national ritual for ghost-laying, a public
feast in honour of departed spirits. Such a feast is still held in
China, and also in Burmah. In 1875 the following placard was posted
throughout the district of Rangoon, proclaiming a feast of forty-nine
days by order of the Emperor of China:--
"There will this year be scarcity of rice and plenty of sickness. Evil
spirits will descend to examine and inquire into the sickness. If people
do not believe this, many will die in September and October. Should any
people call on you at midnight, do not answer; it is not a human being
that calls, but an evil spirit. Do not be wicked, but be good."
But I do not propose to write a treatise on Pagan theology, nor do I
propose to trace in historical detail the progress through which
Christian and Pagan beliefs have in process of time become assimilated,
when I have occasion, I may notice these things. I intend, as I said at
the beginning, to deal with superstition, no matter from what source it
may have arisen, recognising superstition to be as already
defined--beliefs and practices founded upon erroneous ideas of God and
the laws of nature. In many things, I believe, we are yet too
superstitious, and our popular theology, instead of aiding to destroy
these erroneous beliefs, aids them in maintaining their vitality.
Orthodox Christians believe in a general and also in a special
providence; the ancients, on the other hand, believed that all events
were under the control and direction of separate and special divinities,
so that when praying for certain results, they addressed the divinity
having control over that phenomenon or circumstance by which they were
affected, and when their desires were gratified, they expressed their
thankfulness by offerings to that divinity. If their desires were not
granted, they regarded that circumstance as a token of displeasure on
the part of that divinity, and besought the aid of their priests and
sooth-sayers to discover the reason of his anger, and offered sacrifices
and peace offerings. Now, orthodox Christians in the same circumstances
pray to God for special and personal blessings, and when they are
granted, they feel grateful, and sometimes express their gratitude. A
common method of expressing this gratitude is by giving something to the
church. Thus we find in our church records entries like the following:--
From ---- ----, As a thank-offering for the recovery .
of a dear child. -------
" ---- ----, Peace-offering for reconciliation with
an old friend. -------
" ---- ----, Offering for the preservation of a
friend going abroad. -------
" ---- ----, Thank-offering for a fortunate transaction
in business. -------
Such offerings are remarked upon favourably by the leaders of the
Church, and regarded as examples worthy of being imitated by all pious
Christians. But should the prayers not be granted, there is no gift. The
non-fulfilment of their desires is regarded perhaps not altogether as an
evidence of God's displeasure, but at least as a token that what was
asked it was not His pleasure to grant. They make little enquiry
concerning the real cause of failure, but take credit to themselves for
humbly submitting to God's will. This unenquiring submission is often,
however, both sinful and superstitious. Every result has its cause, and
it is surely our duty, as far as observation and reason can guide us,
to discover the causes which operate against us. The great majority of
the afflictions and misfortunes which befall us are punishments for the
breakage of some law, the committal of some sin physical or moral, and
this being the case, it behoves us to find out what law has been
transgressed, what the nature of the sin committed. This principle is
acknowledged by our religious teachers, but the laws which have been
broken, have not been wisely sought after. The field of search has been
almost exclusively the moral, or the theological field; whereas the
correct rule is, for physical effects, look for physical causes; for
moral effects, moral causes. This rule has not been followed. A few
cases illustrative of what I mean will clearly demonstrate the
superstitious nature of what is a widely diffused opinion among the
religious societies of this country at the present time.
Forty-six years ago, when cholera first broke out in this country, it
was immediately proclaimed to be a judgment for a national sin; and so
it was, but for a sin against physical laws. I well remember the
indignation which arose and found expression in almost every pulpit in
the country, when the Prime Minister of that day, in reply to a petition
from the Church asking him to proclaim a national fast for the removal
of the plague, told his petitioners to first remove every source of
nuisance by cleansing drains and ditches, and removing stagnant pools,
and otherwise observe the general laws of health, then having done all
that lay in our power, we could ask God to bless our efforts, and He
would hear us. All sorts of absurd causes were seriously advanced to
account for the presence of this alarming malady. One party discovered
the cause in a movement for the disestablishment of religion. Another
considered it was a judgment from God for asking the Reform Bill. The
Radicals proclaimed it to be a trick of the Tories to prevent agitation
for reform, and added that medical men were bribed to poison wells and
streams. The non-religious displayed as great superstition in this
matter as did the religious. Large bills, headed in large type "Cholera
Humbug," were at that time posted on the blank walls of the streets of
Glasgow. The feeling against medical men was then so intense, that some
of them were mobbed, and narrowly escaped with their lives. In Paisley,
considered to be the most intelligent town in Scotland, a doctor, who
was working night and day for the relief of the sufferers, had his house
and shop sacked, and was obliged to fly for shelter, or his life would
have been sacrificed to the fury of the mob.
When we read that epidemics which broke out in the times of our
forefathers, were ascribed to such absurd causes as the introduction of
forks, or because the nation neglected to prosecute with sufficient
vigour alleged cases of compact with the devil, we wonder at and pity
their ignorance, and rejoice that we live in a more enlightened age. But
the fact is, that among the mass of the people there is really no great
difference between the present and the past. There is a close family
likeness in this matter of superstition between now and long ago, and
this state of matters will continue so long as a knowledge of physical
science--that science which treats of the laws by which God is pleased
to overrule and direct material things--is not made a religious duty.
There are physical sins and there are moral sins, and the punishment for
the first is apparently even more direct than for the second, for in
the case of physical sins we are punished without mercy. Through neglect
of these laws, we are continually suffering punishment, shortening and
making miserable our own lives and the lives of those dependent upon us;
and periodically judgments descend on the careless community, in the
form of severe epidemics. Any religion which advocates practices, or
teaches doctrines inconsistent with our physical, intellectual, or moral
well-being, cannot be from God, and vice versa; and this is a strong
argument in favour of Christianity as taught by its Founder. I wish I
could say the same of the Christianity taught by our ecclesiastics,
either Protestant or Catholic.
The introduction into the heathen world of the fundamental truths that
there is but one God, omnipotent and omniscient, who overrules every
event, that He has revealed Himself through His Son as a God of love and
mercy, and that man's duty to Him is obedience to His laws, was a mighty
step in advance of the gross conceptions of idolatry formerly prevalent
among these nations. But neither heathens nor Christians had for a long
time any clear idea that the overruling of God in Providence was
according to fixed laws. Being ignorant on this point, they ascribed to
unseen supernatural agency, working in a capricious fashion, all
phenomena which appeared to differ from, or disturb the ordinary course
of events. Upon such matters heathen and Christian ideas commingled, and
thus heathen ideas and practices were incorporated with Christian ideas
and practices. Then, when ecclesiastical councils met to determine
truth, and formulate their creeds, these combined heathen and Christian
ideas being accepted by them, became dogmas of the Church, and
henceforth those who differed from the dogmatic creed of the Church, or
advocated views in advance of these confessions, were regarded as
enemies of truth. Naturally, as the Church became powerful she became
more repressive, and opposed all enquiry which appeared to lead to
conclusions different from those already promulgated by her, and
finally, it became a capital offence to teach any other doctrines than
those sanctioned by the Church. The beliefs of the members of these
councils being, as we have already seen, a mixture of heathen and
Christian ideas, the Church thus became a great conservator of
superstition; and to show that this was really so, we may adduce one
example:--Pope Innocent VIII. issued a Bull as follows:--"It has come to
our ears that members of both sexes do not avoid to have intercourse
with the infernal fiends, and that, by this service, they afflict both
man and beast, that they blight the marriage bed, destroy the births of
women and the increase of cattle, they blast the corn on the ground, the
grapes of the vineyard and the fruits of the trees, and the grass and
herbs of the field." The promulgation of this Bull is said to have
produced dreadful consequences, by thousands being burned and otherwise
put to death, for having intercourse with the fiends.
We regret to say such beliefs and such means of repressing free enquiry
were not confined to one branch of the Christian Church. Protestants as
well as Roman Catholics, when they had the power, suppressed many of the
practices of heathenism after a cruel fashion, but at the same time
fostered the superstitions and Pagan beliefs which had originated these
practices, and punished those who protested against these beliefs. The
same method of procedure is in operation at the present day.
Nevertheless, the introduction of Christianity into the heathen world
made a wonderful revolution in their religious practices as well as in
their beliefs. Their idols and the symbols of their divinities were
abolished, along with the sacrifices offered to these. Their great
festivals, at which human sacrifices were offered and abominable
practices committed, were so modified as to be stripped of their
immorality and cruelty, and while being retained--retained because they
could not be utterly abolished--they were Christianized,--that is, a
Christian colouring was given to them,--and they became Church festivals
or holydays,--a subject I will treat more fully of in another chapter.
It is not, as I have already said, my intention to trace the gradual
development of our modern idea of Providence, our ascription of
universal government, of all direction of the phenomena of nature and of
life to the one only omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent God, but
rather to place before the reader the practices and beliefs which
prevailed in this country during the early years of the present century.
And from this survey we shall discover what a mass of old Pagan ideas
still survived and influenced the minds and practice of the people,--how
they yet clung to the notion that many of the phenomena of nature and
life were under the control of supernatural agents, although they did
not regard these agents, as what in olden times they were considered to
be--divinities, but believed them to be a class of beings living upon or
within the earth, and endowed by the devil with supernatural powers.
In the northern sagas, and in the old ballads and saintly legends of
the Middle Ages--supernatural agents who played a prominent part--there
are giants of enormous size and little dwarfs who can make themselves
invisible, and do all sorts of good to their favourites, and harm to
their enemies. We are also introduced there to dragons and other
monsters which have human understandings, and, guided by a wicked
spirit, could do great mischief. Such beings took the place of the
ancient divinities, and in many cases when the hero or saint is in great
straits, in combat with these evil spirits or fiends, Jesus Christ comes
to their assistance. One instance will exemplify this:
"O'er him stood the foul fiends,
And with their clubs of steel,
Struck him o'er the helmit
That in deadly swound he fell.
But God his sorrow saw,
To the fiends his Son he sent;
From the earth they vanished
With howling and lament.
The Christian hero thanked his God,
From the ground he rose with speed,
Joyfully he sheathed his sword,
And mounted on his steed."
_Illustrations of "Northern Antiquities."_
By the beginning of this century these ideas of the _personel_ of
supernatural agencies had become slightly modified in this country at
least, giants and dragons having given way to fairies, brownies, elves,
witches, etc. The Rev. Mr. Kirk, of Aberfeldy, published a work
descriptive of these supernatural beings. He says they are a kind of
astral spirits between angels and humanity, being like men and women in
appearance, and similar in many of their habits; some of them, however,
are double. They marry and have children, for which they keep nurses;
have deaths and burials amongst them, and they can make themselves
visible or invisible at pleasure. They live in subterranean habitations,
and in an invisible condition attend very constantly on men. They are
very fond of human children and pretty women, both of which they will
steal if not protected by some superior influence. Women in childbed
stand in danger of being taken, but if a piece of cold iron be kept in
the bed in which they lie, the spirits won't come near. Children are in
greater danger of being stolen before baptism than after. They
sometimes, to supply their own needs, spirit away the milk from cows,
but more frequently they transfer the milk to the cows of some person
who stands high in their favour. This they do by making themselves
invisible, and silently milking and removing the milk in invisible
vessels. When people offend them they shoot flint-tipped arrows, and by
this means kill either the persons who have offended them or their
cattle. They cause these arrows to strike the most vital part, but the
stroke does not visibly break the skin, only a _blae_ mark is the result
visible on the body after death. These flint arrow-heads are
occasionally found, and the possession of one of these will protect the
possessor against the power of these astral beings, and at the same time
enable him or her to cure disease in cattle and women. These flints were
often sewed into the dresses of children to protect them from the
Evil-eye. There were many other means of protection against the power of
these beings, which we shall have occasion to refer to again. There is
one method, however, which may be mentioned now. If, when a calf is
born, its mouth be smeared with a balsam of dung, before it is allowed
to suck, the fairies cannot milk that cow. Those taken to fairyland lose
the power of calculating the lapse of time, although they are not
unconscious of what is going on around them. Those spirited away to
fairyland may be recovered by their friends or relatives, by performing
certain formula, or--and this was often the method resorted to--by
out-witting the fairies, getting possession of their stolen friends, and
then doing or saying something which fairies cannot bear, upon which
they are forced to depart, leaving the recovered party behind them.
The following information concerning the government, &c., of fairyland,
is taken from Aytoun:--The queen of fairyland was a kind of feudatory
sovereign under Satan, to whom she was obliged to pay _kave_, or tithe
in kind; and, as her own fairy subjects strongly objected to transfer
their allegiance, the quota was usually made up in children who had been
stolen before the rite of baptism had been administered to them. This
belief was at one time universal throughout all Scotland, and was still
prevalent at the beginning of this century. Charms were quite commonly
employed to defend houses from the inroads of the fairies before the
infants were baptised; but even baptism did not always protect the baby
from being stolen. During the period of infancy, the mother required to
be ever watchful; but the risks were especially great before baptism. It
is difficult to define exactly the power which the queen of elfland had,
for besides carrying off Thomas the Rhymer, she was supposed to have
carried off no less a personage than James IV. from the field of
Flodden, and to have detained him in her enchanted country. There was
also a king of elfland. From the accounts extracted from or volunteered
by witches, &c., preserved to us in justiciary and presbyterial records,
he appears to have been a peaceable, luxurious, indolent personage, who
entrusted the whole business of his kingdom, including the recruiting
department, to his wife. We get a glimpse of both their majesties in the
confessions of Isabella Gowdie, in Aulderne, a parish in Nairnshire, who
was indicted for witchcraft in 1662. She said--"I was in Downie Hills,
and got meat there from the queen of the fairies, more than I could eat.
The queen is brawly clothed in white linen, and in white and brown
cloth; and the king is a braw man, well-favoured, and broad-faced. There
were plenty of elf bulls rowting and skoyling up and down, and
affrighted me." Mr. Kirk says "that in fairyland they have also books of
various kinds--history, travels, novels, and plays--but no sermons, no
Bible, nor any book of a religious kind." Every reader of Hogg's
_Queen's Wake_ knows the beautiful legend of the abduction of "Bonny
Kilmeny"; but in Dr. Jamieson's _Illustrations of Northern Antiquities_
we have found amongst these heroic and romantic ballads another legend
more fully descriptive of fairyland. In this legend, a young lady is
carried away to fairyland, and recovered, by her brother:--
"King Arthur's sons o' merry Carlisle
Were playing at the ba',
And there was their sister, burd Ellen,
I' the midst, amang them a'.
Child Rowland kicked it wi' his foot,
And keppit it wi' his knee;
And aye as he played, out o'er them a'.
O'er the kirk he gar'd it flee.
Burd Ellen round about the aisle
To seek the ba' has gane:
But she bade lang, and ay langer,
And she came na back again.
They sought her east, they sought her west,
They sought her up and down,
And wae were the hearts in merry Carlisle,
For she was nae gait found."
Merlin, the warlock, being consulted, told them that burd Ellen was
taken away by the fairies, and that it would be a dangerous task to
recover her if they were not well instructed how to proceed. The
instructions which Merlin gave were, that whoever undertook the quest
for her should, after entering elfland, kill every person he met till he
reached the royal apartments, and taste neither meat nor drink offered
to them, for by doing otherwise they would come under the fairy spell,
and never again get back to earth. Two of her brothers undertook the
journey, but disobeyed the instructions of the warlock, and were
retained in elfland. Child Rowland, her youngest brother, then arming
himself with his father's claymore, _excalibar_--that never struck in
vain--set out on the dangerous quest. Strictly observing the warlock's
instructions, after asking his way to the king of elfland's castle of
every servant he met, he, in accordance with these instructions, when he
had received the desired information, slew the servant. The last fairy
functionary he met was the hen-wife, who told him to go on a little
further till he came to a round green hill surrounded with rings from
the bottom to the top, then go round it _widershins_ (contrary to the
sun) and every time he made the circuit, say--"Open door, open door, and
let me come in," and on the third repetition of this incantation they
would open, and he might then go in. Having received this information,
he fulfilled his instructions, and slew the hen-wife. Then proceeding as
directed, he soon reached the green hill, and made the circuit of it
three times, repeating the words before mentioned. On the third
repetition of the words the door opened, and he went in, the door
closing behind him. "He proceeded through a long passage, where the air
was soft and agreeably warm, like a May evening, as is all the air in
elfland. The light was a sort of twilight or gloaming; but there were
neither windows nor candles, and he knew not whence it came if it was
not from the walls and roof, which were rough and arched like a grotto,
and composed of a clear transparent rock incrusted with _sheep's
silver_, and spar and various bright stones." At last he came to two
lofty folding doors which stood ajar. Passing through these doors, he
entered a large and spacious hall, the richness and brilliance of which
was beyond description. It seemed to extend throughout the whole length
and breadth of the hill. The superb Gothic pillars by which the roof was
supported were so large and lofty, that the pillars of the "Chaury Kirk
or of the Pluscardin Abbey are no more to be compared to them than the
Knock of Alves is to be compared to Balrimes or Ben-a-chi." They were of
gold and silver, and were fretted like the west window of the Chaury
Kirk (Elgin Cathedral), with wreaths of flowers, composed of diamonds
and precious stones of all manner of beautiful colours. The key stones
of the arches, instead of being escutcheoned, were ornamented also with
clusters of diamonds in brilliant devices. From the middle of the roof,
where the arches met, was hung, suspended by a gold chain, an immense
lamp of one hollowed pearl, and perfectly transparent, in the centre of
which was a large carbuncle, which, by the power of magic, turned round
continually, and shed throughout all the hall a clear mild light like
that of the setting sun. But the hall was so large, and these dazzling
objects so far removed, that their blended radiance cast no more than a
pleasing mellow lustre around, and excited no other than agreeable
sensations in the eyes of Child Rowland. The furniture of the hall was
suitable to its architecture; and at the further end, under a splendid
canopy, sitting on a gorgeous sofa of velvet, silk and gold, and
"kembing her yellow hair wi' a silver kemb,"
"Was his sister Burd Ellen.
She stood up him before,
God rue or thee poor luckless fode (man),
What hast thou to do here?
And hear ye this my youngest brother,
Why badena ye at hame?
Had ye a hunder and thousand lives
Ye canna brook are o' them.
And sit thou down; and wae, oh wae!
That ever thou was born,
For came the King o' Elfland in,
Thy leccam (body) is forlorn."
After a long conversation with his sister, the two folding doors were
burst open with tremendous violence, and in came the King of Elfland,
shouting--
"With _fi_, _fe_, _fa_, and _fum_,
I smell the blood of a Christian man,
Be he dead, be he living, with my brand
I'll clash his harns frae his harn pan."
Child Rowland drew his good claymore (excalibar) that never struck in
vain. A furious combat ensued, and the king was defeated; but Child
Rowland spared his life on condition that he would free his sister, Burd
Ellen, and his two brothers, who were lying in a trance in a corner of
the hall. The king then produced a small crystal phial containing a
bright red liquor, with which he anointed the lips, nostrils, ears and
finger tips of the two brothers, who thereupon awoke as from a profound
sleep, and all four returned in triumph to "merry Carlisle." The Rev.
Mr. Kirk's descriptions of the subterranean homes of the fairies and of
their social habits are just the counterparts of the fairyland of this
beautiful ballad legend. There can be little doubt that such beliefs are
but survivals in altered form of what were in still more ancient times
religious tenets. What were formerly divinities have given place to the
more lowly fairies, brownies, &c., and from the position of Pagan gods
they have, through the opposing influence of Christianity, been removed
to the other side, and became servants of the devil, actively opposing
the kingdom of Christ. Some have supposed that the fairies may have
originally been considered to be descendants of the Druids, for some
reason consigned to inhabit subterranean caves under green hills in wild
and lonely glens. Others have identified them with the fallen angels.
One thing is certain, that the notion that there exists supernatural
men, women, and animals who inhabit subterranean and submarine regions,
and yet can indulge in intercourse with the human race, is of very great
antiquity, and widely spread, existing in Arabia, Persia, India, Thibet,
among the Tartars, Swedes, Norwegians, British, and also among the
savage tribes of Africa. In the west of Scotland there was a class of
fairies who acted a friendly part towards their human neighbours,
helping the weak or ill-used, and generally busying themselves with acts
of kindness; these were called "brownies." The fairies proper were a
merry race, full of devilment, and malicious, tricky, and troublesome,
and the cause of much annoyance and fear among the people. Besides these
supernatural beings--brownies, fairies, &c.--there existed a belief in
persons who were possessed of supernatural powers--magicians, sorcerers,
&c. About the Reformation period, these persons were considered to be in
the actual service of the devil, who was then thought to be raising a
more determined opposition than ever to the spread of the kingdom of
God, and adopting the insidious means of enlisting men and women into
his service by conferring upon them supernatural powers; so that by this
contract they were bound to do mischief to all good Christian people;
and the more mischief they could do the greater would be the favours
they received from their master. This belief was not confined to the
ignorant, but was equally accepted by the educated and by the Church.
Measures were taken to frustrate the devil, and the faithful were
recommended to make search for those who had compacted with his Satanic
Majesty, and laws were enacted for the punishment of the compacters when
found. The faithful, under the belief that they were fighting the battle
of the Lord, brought numbers of poor wretches to trial, many of whom,
strangely enough, believed themselves guilty of the crime imputed to
them. After trial and conviction, they were put to death. The belief
that the devil could and did invest men and women with supernatural
powers affected all social relations, for everything strange and
unaccountable--and, in a non-scientific age, we can readily conceive how
almost everything would be brought into this category--was ascribed to
this cause, and each suspected his or her neighbour; even the truest
friendship was sometimes broken through this suspicion. The laws against
witchcraft in this country were abrogated last century, but the
abrogation of the law could not be expected to work any sudden change in
the belief of the people; at most, the alteration only paved the way for
the gradual departure of the superstition, and since the abrogation of
the law the belief has been decaying, but still in many parts of the
country it lingers on till the present time, instances of which appear
every now and again in the newspapers of the day.
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD
When writing of fairies I noticed,--but as it is connected with birth, I
may here mention it again,--a practice common in some localities of
placing in the bed where lay an expectant mother, a piece of cold iron
to scare the fairies, and prevent them from spiriting away mother and
child to elfland. An instance of this spiriting away at the time of
child-bearing is said to have occurred in Arran within these fifty
years. It is given by a correspondent in Long Ago:--"There was a woman
near Pladda, newly delivered, who was carried away, and on a certain
night her wraith stood before her husband telling him that the yearly
riding was at hand, and that she, with all the rout, should ride by his
house at such an hour, on such a night; that he must await her coming,
and throw over her her wedding gown, and so she should be rescued from
her tyrants. With that she vanished. And the time came, with the
jingling of bridles and the tramping of horses outside the cottage; but
this man, feeble-hearted, had summoned his neighbours to bear him
company, who held him, and would not suffer him to go out. So there
arose a bitter cry and a great clamour, and then all was still; but in
the morning, roof and wall were dashed with blood, and the sorrowful
wife was no more seen upon earth. This," says the writer, "is not a tale
from an old ballad, it is the narrative of what was told not fifty years
ago."
Immediately after birth, the newly-born child was bathed in salted
water, and made to taste of it three times. This, by some, was
considered a specific against the influence of the evil eye; but doctors
differ, and so among other people and in other localities different
specifics were employed. I quote the following from Ross' Helenore:-
"Gryte was the care and tut'ry that was ha'en,
Baith night and day about the bonny weeane:
The jizzen-bed, wi' rantry leaves was sain'd,
And sic like things as the auld grannies kend;
Jean's paps wi' saut and water washen clean,
Reed that her milk gat wrang, fan it was green;
Neist the first hippen to the green was flung,
And there at seelfu' words, baith said and sung:
A clear brunt coal wi' the het tangs was ta'en,
Frae out the ingle-mids fu' clear and clean,
And throu' the cosey-belly letten fa',
For fear the weeane should be ta'en awa'."
Before baptism the child was more liable to be influenced by the evil
eye than after that ceremony had been performed, consequently before
that rite had been administered the greatest precautions were taken, the
baby during this time being kept as much as possible in the room in
which it was born, and only when absolutely necessary, carried out of
it, and then under the careful guardianship of a relative, or of the
mid-wife, who was professionally skilled in all the requisites of
safety. Baptism was therefore administered as early as possible after
birth. Another reason for the speedy administration of this rite was
that, should the baby die before being baptised, its future was not
doubtful. Often on calm nights, those who had ears to hear heard the
wailing of the spirits of unchristened bairns among the trees and dells.
I have known of an instance in which the baby was born on a Saturday,
and carried two miles to church next day, rather than risk a week's
delay. It was rare for working people to bring the minister to the
house. Another superstitious notion in connection with baptism was that
until that rite was performed, it was unlucky to name the child by any
name. When, before the child had been christened, any one asked the name
of the baby, the answer generally was, "It has not been out yet." Let it
be remembered that these notions were entertained by people who were not
Romanists, but Protestants, and therefore did not profess to believe in
the saving efficacy of baptism,--who could answer every question in the
Shorter Catechism, and repeat the Creed, and Ten Commandments, to the
satisfaction of elder and minister. But all this verbal acquaintance
with dogma was powerless to eradicate, even, we may venture to say, from
the minds of elder and minister, the deeply-rooted fibres of ancient
superstition, which had been long crystallised in the Roman Catholic
Church, and could not be easily forgot in that of the Protestant.
When a child was taken from its mother and carried outside the bedroom
for the first time after its birth, it was lucky to take it up stairs, and unlucky to take it down stairs. If there were no stairs in the
house, the person who carried it generally ascended three steps of a
ladder or temporary erection, and this, it was supposed, would bring
prosperity to the child.
A child born with a caul (a thin membrane covering the head of some
children at birth) would, if spared, prove a notable person. The
carrying of a caul on board ship was believed to prevent shipwreck, and
masters of vessels paid a high price for them. I have seen an
advertisement for such in a local paper.
When baby was being carried to church to be baptised, it was of
importance that the woman appointed to this post should be known to be
lucky. Then she took with her a parcel of bread and cheese, which she
gave to the first person she met. This represented a gift from the
baby--a very ancient custom. Again, it was of importance that the person
who received this gift should be lucky--should have lucky marks upon
their person. Forecasts were made from such facts as the following
concerning the recipient of the gift:--Was this person male or female,
deformed, disfigured, plain-soled, etc. If the party accepted the gift
willingly, tasted it, and returned a few steps with the baptismal party,
this was a good sign; if they asked to look at the baby, and blessed it,
this was still more favourable: but should this person refuse the gift,
nor taste it, nor turn back, this was tantamount to wishing evil to the
child, and should any serious calamity befall the child, even years
after, it was connected with this circumstance, and the party who had
refused the baptismal gift was blamed for the evil which had befallen
the child. It was also a common belief that if, as was frequently the
case, there were several babies, male and female, awaiting baptism
together, and the males were baptised before the females, all was well;
but if, by mistake, a female should be christened before a male, the
characters of the pair would be reversed--the female would grow up with
a masculine character, and would have a beard, whereas the male would
display a feminine disposition and be beardless. I have known where such
a mistake has produced real anxiety and regret in the minds of the
parents. We have seen that it was not until after baptism that the child
was allowed out of the room in which it was born, except under the
skilful guardianship of a relative or the midwife; but, further than
this, it was not considered safe or proper to carry it into any
neighbour's house until the mother took it herself, and this it was
unlucky even for her to do until she had been to church. Indeed, few
mothers would enter any house until they had been to the house of God.
After this had been accomplished, however, she visited with the baby
freely. In visiting any house with baby for the first time, it was
incumbent on the person whom they were visiting to put a little salt or
sugar into baby's mouth, and wish it well: the omission of this was
regarded as a very unlucky omen for the baby. Here we may note the
survival of a very ancient symbolic practice in this gift of salt. Salt
was symbolical of favour or good will, and covenants of friendship in
very early times were ratified with this gift; sugar, as in this
instance, is no doubt a modern substitute for salt. Among Jews, Greeks,
and Romans, as well as among less civilised nations, salt was used in
their sacrifices as emblematic of fidelity, and for some reason or other
it also came to be regarded as a charm against evil fascinations. By
Roman Catholics in the middle ages, salt was used to protect children
from evil influences before they had received the sacrament of baptism.
This practice is referred to in many of the old ballads and romances.
In a ballad called The King's Daughter, a child is born, but in
circumstances which do not admit of the rite of baptism being
administered. The mother privately puts the baby into a casket, and,
like the mother of Moses, sends it afloat, and as a protection places beside it
a quantity of salt and candles. The words of the ballad are-
"The bairnie she swyl'd in linen so fine,
In a gilded casket she laid it syne,
Mickle saut and light she laid therein,
Cause yet in God's house it had'na been."
Let us return to the mother and child whom we left visiting at a
friend's house, and receiving the covenant of friendship. It was unsafe
to be lavish in praise of the child's beauty, for although such
commendation would naturally be gratifying to the mother, it would at
the same time increase her fears, for the well faured ran the greatest
risk from evil influences, and of being carried off by the fairies. There was also the superadded danger of the mother setting her
affections too much upon her child and forgetting God, who then in
jealousy and mercy would remove it from her. This latter was a very
widespread superstition among religiously-minded people, even among
those who, from their education, ought to have known better. I well
remember the case of a young mother,--a tender loving woman, who, quite
in keeping with her excitable affectionate nature, was passionately fond
of her baby, her first-born. But baby sickened and died, and the poor
mother, borne down with grief, wept bitterly, like Rachel refusing to be
comforted. In the depth of her affliction she was visited by both her
pastor and elder. They admonished her to turn her mind from the selfish
sorrow in which she was indulging, and thank God for His kindly dealing
toward her, in that He had removed from her the cause of sin on her
part. She had been guilty, they said, of loving the baby too much, and
God, who was a jealous God, would not suffer His people to set their
affections on any object in a greater degree than on Himself; and
therefore, He, in his mercy toward her, had removed from her the object
of her idolatry. The poor woman in her agony could only sob out, "Surely
it was no sin to love my own child that God gave me." The more correct
term for such a theological conception would not be superstition, but
blasphemy.
Another danger from which children required to be shielded was the
baneful influence of the evil eye. Malicious people were believed to
possess the power of doing harm by merely looking upon those whom they
wished to injure. This belief is very ancient. From Professor
Conington's Satires of A. Persius Flaccus, I extract the following
notice of it:--"Look here--a grandmother or a superstitious aunt has
taken baby from his cradle, and is charming his forehead and his
slavering lips against mischief by the joint action of her middle finger
and her purifying spittle; for she knows right well how to check the
evil eye. Then she dandles him in her arms, and packs off the pinched
little hope of the family, so far as wishing can do it, to the domains
of Licinus, or the palace of Croesus. 'May he be a catch for my lord and
lady's daughter! May the pretty ladies scramble for him! May the ground
he walks on turn to a rose-bed.' But I will never trust a nurse to
pray for me or mine; good Jupiter, be sure to refuse her, though she may
have put on white for the occasion."
The Romans used to hang red coral round the necks of their children to
save them from falling-sickness, sorcery, charms, and poison. In this
country coral beads were hung round the necks of babies, and are still
used in country districts to protect them from an evil eye. Coral bells
are used at present. The practice was originated by the Roman Catholics
to frighten away evil spirits.
I have quite a vivid remembrance of being myself believed to be the unhappy
victim of an evil eye. I had taken what was called a dwining,
which baffled all ordinary experience; and, therefore, it was surmised
that I had got "a blink of an ill e'e." To remove this evil influence, I
was subjected to the following operation, which was prescribed and
superintended by a neighbour "skilly" in such matters:--A sixpence was
borrowed from a neighbour, a good fire was kept burning in the grate,
the door was locked, and I was placed upon a chair in front of the fire.
The operator, an old woman, took a tablespoon and filled it with water.
With the sixpence she then lifted as much salt as it could carry, and
both were put into the water in the spoon. The water was then stirred
with the forefinger till the salt was dissolved. Then the soles of my
feet and the palms of my hands were bathed with this solution thrice,
and after these bathings I was made to taste the solution three times.
The operator then drew her wet forefinger across my brow,--called scoring aboon the breath. The remaining contents of the spoon she then
cast right over the fire, into the hinder part of the fire, saying as she did
so, "Guid preserve frae a' skaith." These were the first words
permitted to be spoken during the operation. I was then put in bed, and,
in attestation of the efficacy of the charm, recovered. To my knowledge
this operation has been performed within these 40 years, and probably in
many outlying country places it is still practised. The origin of this
superstition is probably to be found in ancient fire worship. The great
blazing fire was evidently an important element in the transaction; nor
was this a solitary instance in which regard was paid to fire. I
remember being taught that it was unlucky to spit into the fire, some
evil being likely shortly after to befall those who did so. Crumbs left
upon the table after a meal were carefully gathered and put into the
fire. The cuttings from the nails and hair were also put into the fire.
These freaks certainly look like survivals of fire worship.
The influence of those possessing the evil eye was not confined to
children, but might affect adults, and also goods and cattle. But for
the bane there was provided the antidote. One effective method of
checking the evil influence was by scoring aboon the breath. In my
case, as I was the victim, scoring with a wet finger was sufficient;
but the suspected possessor of the evil eye was more roughly treated, scoring in this case being effected with some sharp instrument so as
to draw blood. I have never seen this done, but some fifty years ago an
instance occurred in my native village. A child belonging to a poor
woman in this village was taken ill and had convulsive fits, which were
thought to be due to the influence of the evil eye. An old woman in the
neighbourhood, whose temper was not of the sweetest, was suspected. She
was first of all invited to come and see the child in the hope that
sympathy might change the influence she was supposed to be exerting; but
as the old woman appeared quite callous to the sufferings of the child,
the mother, as the old woman was leaving the house, scratched her with
her nails across the brow, and drew blood. This circumstance raised
quite a sensation in the village. Whether the child recovered after this
operation I do not remember. Many other instances of the existence of
this superstitious practice in Scotland within the present century might
be presented, but I content myself with quoting one which was related in
a letter to the Glasgow Weekly Herald, under the signature F.A.:--"I
knew of one case of the kind in Wigtownshire, in the south of Scotland,
about the year 1825, as near as I can mind. I knew all parties very
well. A farmer had some cattle which died, and there was an old woman
living about a mile from the farm who was counted no very canny. She was
heard to say that there would be mair o' them wad gang the same way. So
one day, soon after, as the old woman was passing the farmhouse, one of
the sons took hold of her and got her head under his arm, and cut her
across the forehead. By the way, the proper thing to be cut with is a
nail out of a horse-shoe. He was prosecuted and got imprisonment for
it."
This style of antidote against the influence of an evil eye was common
in England within the century, as the following, which is also taken
from a letter which appeared in the same journal, seems to
show:--"Drawing blood from above the mouth of the person suspected is
the favourite antidote in the neighbourhood of Burnley; and in the
district of Craven, a few miles within the borders of Yorkshire, a
person who was ill-disposed towards his neighbours is believed to have
slain a pear-tree which grew opposite his house by directing towards it
'the first morning glances' of his evil eye. Spitting three times in the
person's face; turning a live coal on the fire; and exclaiming, 'The
Lord be with us,' are other means of averting its influence."
We must not, however, pursue this digression further, but return to our
proper subject. It was not necessary that the person possessed of the
evil eye, and desirous of inflicting evil upon a child, should see the
child. All that was necessary was that the person with the evil eye
should get possession of something which had belonged to the child, such
as a fragment of clothing, a toy, hair, or nail parings. I may note here
that it was not considered lucky to pare the nails of a child under one
year old, and when the operation was performed the mother was careful to
collect every scrap of the cutting, and burn them. It was considered a
great offence for any person, other than the mother or near relation, in
whom every confidence could be placed, to cut a baby's nails; if some
forward officious person should do this, and baby afterwards be taken
ill, this would give rise to grave suspicions of evil influence being at
work. The same remarks apply to the cutting of a baby's hair. I have
seen the door locked during hair-cutting, and the floor swept
afterwards, and the sweepings burned, lest perchance any hairs might
remain, and be picked up by an enemy. Dr. Livingstone, in his book on
the Zambesi, mentions the existence of a similar practice among some
African tribes. "They carefully collect and afterwards burn or bury the
hair, lest any of it fall into the hands of a witch." Mr. Munter
mentions that the same practice is common amongst the Patagonians, and
the practice extends to adults. He says that after bathing, which they
do every morning, "the men's hair is dressed by their wives, daughters,
or sweethearts, who take the greatest care to burn the hairs that may be
brushed out, as they fully believe that spells may be wrought by
evil-intentioned persons who can obtain a piece of their hair. From the
same idea, after cutting their nails the parings are carefully committed
to the flames."
Besides this danger--this blighting influence of the evil eye which
environed the years of childhood--there was also this other danger,
already mentioned, that of being spirited away by fairies. The danger
from this source was greater when the baby was pretty, and what fond
mother did not consider her baby pretty? Early in the century, a
labourer's wife living a few miles west of Glasgow, became the mother of
a very pretty baby. All who saw it were charmed with its beauty, and it
was as good as it was bonnie. The neighbours often urged on the mother
the necessity of carefulness, and advised her to adopt such methods as
were, to their minds, well-attested safe-guards for the preservation of
children from fairy influence and an evil eye. She was instructed never
to leave the child without placing near it an open Bible. One unhappy
day the mother went out for a short time, leaving the baby in its
cradle, but she forgot or neglected to place the open Bible near the
child as directed. When she returned baby was crying, and could by no
means be quieted, and the mother observed several blue marks upon its
person, as if it had been pinched. From that day it became a perfect
plague; no amount of food or drink would satisfy it, and yet withal it became
lean. The girn my informant said, was never out its face, and
it yammered on night and day. One day an old highland woman having
seen the child, and inspected it carefully, affirmed that it was a fairy
child. She went the length of offering to put the matter to the test,
and this is how she tested it. She put the poker in the fire, and hung a
pot over the fire wherein were put certain ingredients, an incantation
being said as each new ingredient was stirred into the pot. The child
was quiet during these operations, and watched like a grown person all
that was being done, even rising upon its elbow to look. When the
operations were completed, the old woman took the poker out of the fire,
and carrying it red hot over to the cradle, was about to burn the sign
of the cross on the baby's brow, when the child sprung suddenly up, knocked the
old woman down and disappeared up the lum (chimney,)
filling the house with smoke, and leaving behind it a strong smell of
brimstone. When the smoke cleared away, the true baby was found in the
cradle sleeping as if it never had been taken away. Another case was
related to me as having occurred in the same neighbourhood, but in this
instance the theft was not discovered until after the death of the
child. The surreptitious or false baby, having apparently died, was
buried; but suspicion having been raised, the grave was opened and the
coffin examined, when there was found in it, not a corpse, but a wooden
figure. The late Mr. Rust, in his Druidism Exhumed, states that this
superstition is common in the North of Scotland, and adds that it is
also believed that if the theft be discovered before the apparent death
of the changling, there are means whereby the fairies may be propitiated
and induced to restore the real baby. One of these methods is the
following:--The parents or friends of the stolen baby must take the
fairy child to some known haunt of the fairies, generally some spot
where peculiar soughing sounds are heard, where there are remains of
some ancient cairn or stone circle, or some green mound or shady dell,
and lay the child down there, repeating certain incantations. They must
also place beside it a quantity of bread, butter, milk, cheese, eggs,
and flesh of fowl, then retire to a distance and wait for an hour or
two, or until after midnight. If on going back to where the child was
laid they find that the offerings have disappeared, it is held as
evidence that the fairies have been satisfied, and that the human child
is returned. The baby is then carried home, and great rejoicing made.
Mr. Rust states that he knew a woman who, when a baby, had been stolen
away, but was returned by this means.
MARRIAGE
The next very important event in man's life is marriage, and naturally,
therefore, to this event there attached a multitude of superstitious
notions and practices, many of which, indeed, do still exist. The time
when marriage took place was of considerable importance. One very
prevalent superstition, common alike to all classes in the community,
and whose force is not yet spent, was the belief that it was unlucky to
marry in the month of May. The aversion to marrying in May finds
expression in the very ancient and well-known proverb, "Marry in May,
rue for aye," and thousands still avoid marrying in this month who can
render no more solid reason for their aversion than the authority of
this old proverb. But in former times there were reasons given, varying,
however, in different localities. Some of the reasons given were the
following:--That parties so marrying would be childless, or, if they had
children, that the first-born would be an idiot, or have some physical
deformity; or that the married couple would not lead a happy life, and
would soon tire of each other's society. The origin of this superstition
is to be found in ancient heathen religious beliefs and practices. We
have already noticed the ancient belief that the spirits of dead
ancestors haunted the living, and I have given a formula whereby a
single person could exorcise the ghosts of his departed relatives, and I
have also mentioned that national festivals to propitiate the spirits of
the dead were appointed by some nations. Now, we find that among the
Romans this national festival was held during the month of May, and
during its continuance all other forms of worship were suspended, and
the temples shut; and further, for any couple to contract marriage
during this season was held to be a daring of the Fates which few were
found hardy enough to venture. Ovid says--
"Pause while we keep these rites, ye widowed dames,
The marriage time a purer season claims;
Pause, ye fond mothers, braid not yet her hair,
Nor the ripe virgin for her lord prepare.
O, light not, Hymen, now your joyous fires,
Another torch nor yours the tomb requires!
Close all the temples on these mourning days,
And dim each altar's spicy, steaming blaze;
For now around us roams a spectred brood,
Craving and keen, and snuffing mortal food:
They feast and revel, nor depart again,
Till to the month but ten days more remain."
Superstitions of this sort linger much longer in the country than in
towns, and the larger the town the more speedily do they die out; but,
judging from the statistics of late years, this superstition has still a
firm hold of the inhabitants of Glasgow, the second city of the Empire.
During the year 1874 the marriages in May were only 204, against 703 in
June; but as the removal term occurs at the end of May, that must
materially affect the relations, in this respect, between May and June,
and accounts, in part, for the great excess of marriages in June. But
if the average of the eleven months, excluding May, be taken, then
during that year there was a monthly average of 441, against 204 in
May--being rather more than double. For the ten years preceding 1874,
the average of the eleven months was 388, against 203 in May. As if to
compensate for the restraint put upon the people in May, Juno, the
wife of Jupiter, after whom June was named, and whose influence was
paramount during that month, took special guardianship over births and
marriages; hence June was a lucky month to be born in or get married in,
and thus June is known as the marrying month. Here, again, our registers
show that the number of marriages are in June nearly double the average
of the other months, excluding May and June. The average during the ten
years is, for the ten months, 375 per month, whilst the average for June
is 598. It may be noticed in passing that, in Glasgow, January and July
stand as high as June, owing, doubtless, to the holidays which occur
during these two months making marriage at those times more convenient
for the working classes.
There were many marriage observances of a religious or superstitious
character practised in ancient Rome which were quite common among us
within this century, especially in the country districts, but which now
are either extinct or fast dying out. When a Roman girl was betrothed,
she received from her intended a ring which she wore as evidence of her
betrothal. When betrothed she laid aside her girlish or maiden
dress,--some parts of which were offered as a sacrifice to the household
gods,--and she was then clothed in the dress of a wife, and secluded
from her former companions, and put under training for her new duties.
When the time drew near for the consummation of the ceremony, it became
an important consideration to fix upon a lucky day and hour for the knot
to be tied. With this object astrologers, sooth-sayers, and others of
that class were consulted, who, by certain divinations ascertained the
most auspicious time for the union to take place in. When the day
arrived every occurrence was watched for omens. A crow or turtle dove
appearing near was a good omen: for these birds symbolized conjugal
fidelity. The ceremony was begun by sacrificing a sheep to Juno, the
fleece being spread upon two chairs on which the bride and bridegroom
sat: then a prayer was said over them. The young wife, carrying a
distaff and spindle filled with wool, was conducted to her house, a
cake, baked by the vestal virgins, being carried before her. The
threshold of the house was disenchanted by charms, and by annointing it
with certain unctuous perfumes; but as it was considered unlucky for the
new-made wife to tread upon the threshold on first entering her house,
she was lifted over it and seated upon a piece of wool, a symbol of
domestic industry. The keys of the house were then put into her hand,
and the cake was divided among the guests. The first work of the young
wife was to spin new garments for her husband. It will be seen that many
of these practices were mixed up with superstitious notions, many of
which were prevalent in this country sixty years ago, and some of which
still remain in country districts. Sixty years ago when a young woman
became a bride, she in a great measure secluded herself from society,
and mixed but little even with her companions, and on no account would
she show herself at church until after her marriage, as that was
considered very unlucky. The evening before the marriage her presents
and outfit were conveyed to her future home under the superintendence of
the best maid (bridesmaid), who carried with her a certain domestic
utensil filled with salt, which was the first article of the bride's
furnishing taken into the house. A portion of the salt was sprinkled
over the floor as a protection against an evil eye. The house being set
in order, the best maid returned to the bride's house where a company of
the bride's companions were met, and then occurred the ceremony of
washing the bride's feet. This was generally the occasion of much mirth.
And this was in all probability a survival of an old Scandinavian custom
under which the Norse bride was conducted by her maiden friends to
undergo a bath, called the bride's bath, a sort of religious
purification. On the marriage day, every trifling circumstance which
would have passed without notice at other times was noted and scanned
for omens of good or evil. If the morning was clear and shining, this
betokened a happy cheerful life; if dull and raining, the contrary
result might be anticipated. I have known the following incidents cause
grave concern about the future prospects of the young couple:--A clot of
soot coming down the chimney and spoiling the breakfast; the bride
accidentally breaking a dish; a bird sitting on the window sill chirping
for some time; the bird in the cage dying that morning; a dog howling,
and the postman forgetting to deliver a letter to the bride until he was
a good way off, and had to return. Some of these were defined for good,
but most of them were evil omens. The ceremony was generally performed
at the minister's residence, which was often a considerable distance
off. The marriage party generally walked all the way, but if the
distance was unusually great, the company rode the journey, and this was
called "a riding wedding." There were two companies--the bride's party
and the bridegroom's party. The bride's party met in the bride's
parents' house, the best man being with them, and the groom's party met
in his parents' house, the best maid being with them--the males
conducting the females to their respective parties. At the time
appointed the bride's party left first, followed immediately by the
groom's party--each company headed by the respective fathers. They so
arranged their walk that both parties would reach the minister's house
together. As soon as the ceremony was concluded, there was a rush on the
part of the young men to get the first kiss of the newly-made wife. This
was frequently taken by the clergyman himself, a survival of an old
custom said to have been practised in the middle ages. This custom is
referred to in the following old song. The bridegroom, addressing the
minister, says:--
"It's no very decent for you to be kissing,
It does not look weel wi' the black coat ava,
'Twould hae set you far better tae hae gi'en us your blessing,
Than thus by such tricks to be breaking the law.
Dear Watty, quo Robin, it's just an auld custom,
And the thing that is common should ne'er be ill taen,
For where ye are wrong, if ye hadna a wished him
You should have been first. It's yoursel it's to blame."
The party now returned in the following order: first, the two fathers in
company together, then the newly-married couple, behind them the best
man and the best maid, and the others following in couples as they
might arrange. There were frequently as many as twenty couples. On
coming within a mile or so of the young couple's house, where the mother
of the young good man was waiting, a few of the young men would start on
a race home. This race was often keenly contested, and was termed running the brooze
or braize. The one who reached the house first
and announced the happy completion of the wedding, was presented with a
bottle of whiskey and a glass, with which he returned to meet the
marriage procession, and the progress of the procession was generally so
arranged that he would meet them before they arrived at the village or
town where the young couple were to be resident. He was therefore
considered their first foot, and distributed the contents of his
bottle among the party, each drinking to the health of the young married
pair, and then bottle and glass were thrown away and broken. The whole
party then proceeded on their way to the young folks' house. To be the
successful runner in this race was an object of considerable ambition,
and the whole town and neighbourhood took great interest in it. At
riding weddings it was the great ambition of farmers' sons to succeed in winning
the braize, and they would even borrow racing horses for the
occasion.
The origin of this custom of running the _braize_--it was so pronounced
in the west county--has long been a puzzle to antiquarians. Probably it
is the survival of a custom practised by our Scandinavian forefathers. A
Scandinavian hero or warrior considered it beneath his dignity to court
a lady's favour by submitting the matter of marriage to her decision.
When he saw or heard of a beauty whom he decided to make his wife, he
either went direct and took her away by force from her home, or he
gained the right to make her his bride by success in battle with his
opponents. Often, however, one who was no hero might gain the consent of
the parents to his marriage with their daughter, she having little or no
voice in the matter; and when she and her friends were on their way to
the church, some heroic but unapproved admirer, determined to win her by
force of arms, having collected his followers and friends who were ever
ready for a fight, would fall upon the marriage cortege, and carry off
the bride. Under those circumstances there was often great anxiety on
the part of both the groom's and bride's relations, who remained at home
when they had reason to apprehend that such attack might be made, and
so, whenever the marriage ceremony was over, some of the company hasted
home with the glad news; but commonly youths stationed themselves at the
church-door, ready to run the moment the ceremony was over, and whether
on foot or horseback, the race became an exciting one. He who first
brought the good news received as a reward a bowl of brose, and such
brose as was made in those days for this occasion was an acceptable
prize. Although the necessity for running ceased, the sport occasioned
by these contentions was too good and exciting to be readily given up,
but it came to be confined to those who were at the wedding, and many
young men looked forward eagerly to taking part in the sport. The prize
which originally was brose, came to be changed to something more
congenial to the tastes and usages of the times, viz., a bottle of
whiskey. In this way, I think, we may account for the custom of "running
the braize." It has been mentioned already that the best man went with
the bride to the minister. His duty it was to take charge of the bride
and hand her over to the bridegroom, a duty now performed by the bride's
father, and in this now obsolete custom, I think we may find a still
further proof that the management and customs of the marriage procession
were founded upon the old practice of wife-capture. The best man is
evidently just the bridegroom's friend, who, in the absence of the
bridegroom, undertakes to protect the bride against a raid until she
reaches the church, when he hands her over to his friend the bridegroom.
To meet a funeral either in going to or coming from marriage was very
unlucky. If the funeral was that of a female, the young wife would not
live long; if a male, the bridegroom would die soon.
After partaking of the _braize's_ hospitality,--for the bottle of
whiskey was his by right,--the wedding party proceeded to the house of
the young couple, and in some parts of Scotland, at the beginning of the
century, the young wife was lifted over the threshold, or first step of
the door, lest any witchcraft or _ill e'e_ should be cast upon and
influence her. Just at the entering of the house, the young man's mother
broke a cake of bread, prepared for the occasion, over the young wife's
head. She was then led to the hearth, and the poker and tongs--in some
places the broom also--were put into her hands, as symbols of her office
and duty. After this, her mother-in-law handed her the keys of the house
and furniture, thus transferring the mother's rights over her son to his
wife. Again the glass went round, and each guest drank and wished
happiness to the young pair. The cake which was broken over the young
wife's head was now gathered and distributed among the unmarried female
guests, and by them retained to be placed under their pillows, so that
they might dream of their future husbands. This is a custom still
practised, but what is now the bridescake is not a cake broken over the
bride's head, but a larger and more elaborately-prepared article, which
is cut up and distributed immediately after the marriage ceremony. Young
girls still put a piece of it under their pillows in order to obtain
prophetic dreams. In some cases, this is done by a friend writing the
names of three young men on a piece of paper, and the cake, wrapped in
it, is put under the pillow for three nights in succession before it is
opened. Should the owners of the cake have dreamed of one of the three
young men therein written, it is regarded as a sure proof that he is to
be her future husband. After drinking to the health and happiness of the
young couple, the wedding party then went to the house of the
bridegroom's father where they partook of supper, generally a very
substantial meal; and this being finished, the young people of the party
became restless for a change of amusement, and generally all then
repaired to some hall or barn, and there spent the night in dancing. It
was the custom for the young couple, with their respective parents and
the best man and the best maid, to lead off by dancing the first reel.
Should the young couple happen to have either brothers or sisters older
than themselves, but unmarried, these unfortunate brethren danced the
first reel without their shoes. Probably this has its origin in the old
Jewish custom of giving up the shoe or sandal when the right or priority
passed from one to another. For an instance of this see Ruth iv. 7.
Having danced till far on in the morning of next day, the young couple
were then conducted home. The young wife, assisted by her female
friends, undressed and got to bed, then the young man was sent into bed
by his friends, and then all the marriage party entered the bedroom,
when the young wife took one of her stockings, which had been put in bed
with her, and threw it among the company. The person who got this was to
be the first married. The best man then handed round the glass, and when
all had again drank to the young couple, the company retired. This
custom was termed _the bedding_, and was regarded as a ceremony
necessary to the completion of the marriage; and there can be little
doubt that it is a survival of a very ancient ceremony of the same
family as the old Grecian custom of removing the bride's coronet and
putting her to bed. This particular form of ceremony was also found in
Scotland, and continued to comparatively modern times. Young Scotch
maidens formerly wore a snood, a sort of coronet, open at the top,
called the virgin snood, and before being put to bed on the marriage
night this snood was removed by the young women of the party. This
custom is referred to in an ancient ballad.
"They've ta'en the bride to the bridal bed,
To loose her snood nae mind they had.
'I'll loose it,' quo John."
On the morning after some of the married women of the neighbourhood met
in the young wife's house and put on her the _curtch_ or closs cap
(_mutch_), a token of the marriage state. In my young days unmarried
women went with the head uncovered; but after marriage, never were seen
without a cap. On the morning after marriage the best man and maid
breakfasted with the young couple, after which they spent the day in the
country, or if they lived in the country, they went to town for a
change. Weddings were invariably celebrated on a Friday,--the reason for
this preference being, as is supposed, that Friday was the day dedicated
by the Norsemen to the goddess, Friga, the bestower of joy and
happiness. The wedding day being Friday, the walking-day was a Saturday;
and on Sunday the young couple, with their best man and best maid,
attended church in the forenoon, and took a walk in the afternoon, then
spent the evening in the house of one of their parents, the meeting
there being closed by family worship, and a pious advice to the young
couple to practise this in their own house.
If the bride had been courted by other sweethearts than he who was now
her husband, there was a fear that those discarded suitors might
entertain unkindly feelings towards her, and that their evil wishes
might supernaturally influence her, and affect her first-born. This evil
result was sought to be averted by the bride wearing a sixpence in her
left shoe till she was _kirked_; but should the bride have made a vow to
any other, and broken it, this wearing of the sixpence did not prevent
the evil consequences from falling upon her first-born. Many instances
were currently quoted among the people of first-born children, under
such circumstances, having been born of such unnatural shapes and
natures that, with the sanction of the minister and the relations, the
monster birth was put to death. Captain Burt, in his letters from the
Highlands, written early in the eighteenth century, says that "soon
after the wedding day the newly-married wife sets herself about spinning
her winding sheet, and a husband that shall sell or pawn it is esteemed
among all men one of the most profligate." And Dr. Jamieson says--"When
a woman of the lower class in Scotland, however poor, or whether married
or single, commences housekeeping, her _first care_, after what is
absolutely necessary for the time, is to provide _death linen_ for
herself and those who look to her for that office, and _her next_ to
earn, save, and _lay up (not put out to interest)_ such money as may
decently serve for funeral expenses. And many keep secret these
honorable deposits and salutary _mementoes_ for two or threescore
years."
This practice was continued within my recollection. The first care of
the young married wife was still, in my young days, to spin and get
woven sufficient linen to make for herself and her husband their _dead
claes_. I can well remember the time when, in my father's house, these
things were spread out to air before the fire. This was done
periodically, and these were days when mirth was banished from the
household, and everything was done in a solemn mood. The day was kept as
a Sabbath. The reader will not fail to observe in some of these modern
customs and beliefs modified survivals of the old Roman practices and
superstitious beliefs.
DEATH
It is not surprising that the solemn period of death should have been
surrounded with many superstitious ideas,--with a great variety of omens
and warnings, many of which, however, were only called to mind after the
event. In the country, when any person was taken unwell, it was very
soon known over the whole neighbourhood, and all sorts of remedies were
recommended. Generally a doctor was not sent for until the patient was
considered in a dangerous state, and then began the search for omens or
warnings. If the patient recovered, these premonitions were forgotten,
but if death ensued, then everything was remembered and rendered
significant. Was a dog heard to howl and moan during the night, with his
head in the direction of the house where the patient lay; was there
heard in the silent watches of the night in the room occupied by the
sick person, a tick, ticking as of a watch about the bed or furniture,
these were sure signs of approaching death, and adult patients hearing
these omens, often made sure that their end was near. Many pious people
also improved the circumstance, pointing out that these omens were
evidence of God's great mercy, inasmuch as He vouchsafed to give a
timely warning in order that the dying persons might prepare for death,
and make their peace with the great Judge. To have hinted, under such
circumstances, that the ticking sounds were caused by a small wood moth
tapping for its mate, would have subjected the hinter to the name of
infidel or unbeliever in Scripture, as superstitious people always took
shelter in Scripture.
Persons hearing a tingling sound in their ears, called the _deid bells_,
expected news of the death of a friend or neighbour. A knock heard at
the door of the patient's room, and on opening no person being found,
was a sure warning of approaching death. If the same thing occurred
where there was no patient, it was a sign that some relation at a
distance had died. I was sitting once in the house of a newly married
couple, when a loud knock was heard upon the floor under a chair, as if
some one had struck the floor with a flat piece of wood. The young wife
removed the chair, and seeing nothing, remarked with some alarm, "It is
hasty news of a death." Next day she received word of the death of two
of her brothers, soldiers in India, the deaths having occurred nearly a
year before. There was no doubt in the mind of the young wife that the
knock was a supernatural warning. The natural explanation probably was
that the sound came from the chair, which being new, was liable to
shrink at the joints for some time, and thus cause the sound heard. This
cracking sound is quite common with new furniture.
If, again, some one were to catch a glimpse of a person whom they knew
passing the door or window, and on looking outside were to find no such
person there, this was a sign of the approaching death of the person
seen. There were many instances quoted of the accuracy of this omen,
instances generally of persons who, in good health at the time of their
illusionary presence, died shortly after. Another form of this
superstition was connected with those who were known to be seriously
ill. Should the observer see what he felt convinced was the unwell
person, say, walking along the street, and on looking round as the
presence passed, see no person, this was a token of the death of the
person whose spectre was seen. I knew of a person who, on going home
from his work one evening, came suddenly upon an old man whom he knew to
be bed-ridden, dressed as was formerly his wont, with knee breeches,
blue coat, and red nightcap. Although he knew that the old man had for
some time been confined to bed, so distinct was the illusion that he bid
him "good night" in passing, but receiving no reply, looked behind and
saw no one. Seized with fright, he ran home and told what he had seen.
On the following morning it was known through the village that the old
man was dead. And his death had taken place at the time when the young
man had seen him on the previous evening. This was considered a
remarkably clear instance of a person's wraith or spirit being seen at
the time of death. However, the seeing of a person's wraith was not
always an omen of death. There were certain rules observed in relation
to wraiths, by which their meaning could be ascertained, but these rules
differed in different localities. In my native village a wraith seen
during morning, or before twelve noon, betokened that the person whose
wraith was seen would be fortunate in life, or if unwell at the time,
would recover; but when the wraith was seen in the afternoon or evening,
this betokened evil or approaching death, and the time within which
death would occur was considered to be within a year. This belief in
wraiths goes back to a very early period of man's history. The ancient
Persians and Jews believed that every person had a spirit or guardian
angel attending him, and although generally invisible, it had the power
of becoming visible, and separating itself for a time from the person it
attended, and of appearing to other persons in the guise of the
individual from whom it emanated. An excellent example of this
superstitious belief is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. When
Peter, who was believed to be in prison, knocked at the "door of the
gate" of the house where the disciples were met, the young woman who
went to open the door, on recognising Peter's voice, was overjoyed, and,
instead of opening, ran into the house, and told the disciples Peter was
at the door. Then they said "It is his angel" (wraith). Thus the whole
company expressed their belief in attending angels. The belief in
wraiths was prevalent throughout all Scotland. It is beautifully
introduced in the song of "Auld Robin Gray." When the young wife
narrates her meeting with her old sweetheart, she says, "I thought it
was his wraith, I could not think it he," and the belief survives in
some parts of the country to the present day.
If a dying person struggled hard and long, it was believed that the
spirit was kept from departing by some magic spell. It was therefore
customary, under these circumstances, for the attendants to open every
lock in the house, that the spell might be broken, and the spirit let
loose. J. Train refers to this superstition in his _Mountain Muse_,
published 1814:--
"The chest unlocks to ward the power,
Of spells in Mungo's evil hour."
After death there came a new class of superstitious fears and practices.
The clock was stopped, the looking-glass was covered with a cloth, and
all domestic animals were removed from the house until after the
funeral. These things were done, however, by many from old custom, and
without their knowing the reason why such things were done. Originally
the reason for the exclusion of dogs and cats arose from the belief
that, if either of these animals should chance to leap over the corpse,
and be afterwards permitted to live, the devil would gain power over the
dead person.
When the corpse was laid out, a plate of salt was placed upon the
breast, ostensibly to prevent the body swelling. Many did so in this
belief, but its original purpose was to act as a charm against the devil
to prevent him from disturbing the body. In some localities the plate of
salt was supplemented with another filled with earth. A symbolical
meaning was given for this; that the earth represented the corporeal
body, the earthly house,--the salt the heavenly state of the soul. But
there was an older superstition which gave another explanation for the
plate of salt on the breast. There were persons calling themselves "_sin
eaters_" who, when a person died, were sent for to come and eat the sins
of the deceased. When they came, their _modus operandi_ was to place a
plate of salt and a plate of bread on the breast of the corpse, and
repeat a series of incantations, after which they ate the contents of
the plates, and so relieved the dead person of such sins as would have
kept him hovering around his relations, haunting them with his
imperfectly purified spirit, to their great annoyance, and without
satisfaction to himself. This form of superstition has evidently a close
relation to such forms of ancestor-worship as we know were practised by
the ancients, and to which reference has already been made.
Until the funeral, it was the practice for some of the relations or
friends to sit up all night, and watch the corpse. In my young days this
duty was generally undertaken by youths, male and female friends, who
volunteered their services; but these watchings were not accompanied by
the unseemly revelries which were common in Scotland in earlier times,
or as are still practised in Ireland. The company sitting up with the
corpse generally numbered from two to six, although I have myself been
one of ten. They went to the house about ten in the evening, and before
the relations went to bed each received a glass of spirits; about
midnight there was a refreshment of tea or ale and bread, and the same
in the morning, when the relations of the deceased relieved the
watchers. Although during these night sittings nothing unbefitting the
solemnity of the occasion was done, the circumstances of the meeting
gave opportunity for love-making. The first portion of the night was
generally passed in reading,--some one reading aloud for the benefit of
the company, afterwards they got to story-telling, the stories being
generally of a ghostly description, producing such a weird feeling, that
most of the company durst hardly look behind them for terror, and would
start at the slightest noise. I have seen some so affected by this fear
that they would not venture to the door alone if the morning was dark.
These watchings of the dead were no doubt efficacious in perpetuating
superstitious ideas.
The reasons given for watching the corpse differed in different
localities. The practice is still observed, I believe, in some places;
but probably now it is more the result of habit--a custom followed
without any basis of definite belief, and merely as a mark of respect
for the dead; but in former times, and within this century, it was
firmly held that if the corpse were not watched, the devil would carry
off the body, and many stories were current of such an awful result
having happened. One such story was told me by a person who had received
the story from a person who was present at the wake where the occurrence
happened. I thus got it at second hand. The story ran as follows:--The
corpse was laid out in a room, and the watchers had retired to another
apartment to partake of refreshments, having shut the door of the room
where the corpse lay. While they were eating there was heard a great
noise, as of a struggle between two persons, proceeding from the room
where the corpse lay. None of the party would venture into the room, and
in this emergency they sent for the minister, who came, and, with the
open Bible in his hand, entered the room and shut the door. The noise
then ceased, and in about ten minutes he came out, lifted the tongs from
the fireplace, and again re-entered the room. When he came out again, he
brought out with the tongs a glove, which was seen to be bloody, and
this he put into the fire. He refused, however, to tell either what he
had seen or heard; but on the watchers returning to their post, the
corpse lay as formerly, and as quiet and unruffled as if nothing had
taken place, whereat they were all surprised.
From the death till the funeral it was customary for neighbours to call
and see the corpse, and should any one see it and not touch it, that
person would be haunted for several nights with fearful dreams. I have
seen young children and even infants made to touch the face of the
corpse, notwithstanding their terror and screams. If a child who had
seen the corpse, but had not been compelled to touch it, had shortly
afterwards awakened from a sleep crying, it would have been considered
that its crying was caused by its having seen the ghost of the dead
person.
If, when the funeral left the house, the company should go in a
scattered, straggling manner, this was an omen that before long another
funeral would leave the same house. If the company walked away quickly,
it was also a bad omen. It was believed that the spirit of the last
person buried in any graveyard had to keep watch lest any suicide or
unbaptized child should be buried in the consecrated ground, so that,
when two burials took place on the same day, there was a striving to be
first at the churchyard. In some parts of the Highlands this
superstition led to many unseemly scenes when funerals occurred on the
same day.
Those attending the funeral who were not near neighbours or relations
were given a quantity of bread and cakes to take home with them, but
relations and near neighbours returned to the house, where their wives
were collected, and were liberally treated to both meat and drink. This
was termed the _dredgy_ or _dirgy_, and to be present at this was
considered a mark of respect to the departed. This custom may be the
remnant of an ancient practice--in some sort a superstition--which
existed in Greece, where the friends of the deceased, after the funeral,
held a banquet, the fragments of which were afterwards carried to the
tomb. Upon the death of a wealthy person, when the funeral had left the
house, sums of money were divided among the poor. In Catholic times this
was done that the poor might pray for the soul of the deceased. In the
Danish _Niebellungen_ song it is stated that, at the burial of the hero
Seigfried, his wife caused upwards of thirty thousand merks of gold to
be distributed among the poor for the welfare and repose of his soul.
This custom became in this country and century in Protestant times an
occasion for the gathering of beggars and sorners from all parts. At the
funeral of George Oswald of Scotstoun, three miles from Glasgow, there
were gathered several hundreds, who were each supplied with a silver
coin and a drink of beer, and many were the blessings wished. A similar
gathering occurred at the funeral of old Mr. Bogle of Gilmourhill, near
Glasgow; but when announcement was made that nothing was to be given,
there rose a fearful howl of execration and cursing both of dead and
living from the mendacious crowd. The village of Partick in both these
cases was placed under a species of black-mail for several days by
beggars, who would hardly take any denial, and in many instances
appropriated what was not their own. I am not aware that this custom is
retained in any part of the country now.
As the funerals fifty years ago were mostly walking funerals, the coffin
being carried between two spokes, the sort of weather during the funeral
had its omens, for in these days the weather was believed to be greatly
under the control of the devil, or rather it was considered that he was
permitted to tamper with the weather. If the day was fine, this was
naturally a good omen for the soul's welfare. I remember that the
funeral of the only daughter of a worthy couple happened on a wet day,
but just as the funeral was leaving the house the sun broke through and
the day cleared, whereupon the mother, with evident delight, as she
stood at the door, thanked God that Mary was getting a good blink.
Stormy weather was a bad omen, being regarded as due to Satan's
influence. Burns refers to this belief in his "Tam o' Shanter." When
referring to the storm, he says:--
"Even a bairn might understand
The deil had business on his hand."
The following old rhyme mentions the most propitious sort of weather for
the christening, marriage, and funeral:--
"West wind to the bairn when gaun for its name,
Gentle rain to the corpse carried to its lang hame,
A bonny blue sky to welcome the bride,
As she gangs to the kirk, wi' the sun on her side."
The wake in the Highlands during last century was a very common affair.
Captain Burt, in his letters from Scotland, 1723, says that when a
person dies the neighbours gather in the evening in the house where the
dead lies, with bagpipe, and spend the evening in dancing--the nearest
relative to the corpse leading off the dance. Whisky and other
refreshments are provided, and this is continued every night until the
funeral.
Pennant, in his tour through the Highlands, 1772, says that, at a death,
the friends of the deceased meet with bagpipe or fiddle, when the
nearest of kin leads off a melancholy ball, dancing and wailing at the
same time, which continue till daybreak, and is continued nightly till
the interment. This custom is to frighten off or protect the corpse from
the attack of wild beasts, and evil spirits from carrying it away.
Another custom of olden times, and which was continued till the
beginning of this century, was that of announcing the death of any
person by sending a person with a bell--known as the "deidbell"--through
the town or neighbourhood. The same was done to invite to the funeral.
In all probability, the custom of ringing the bell had its origin in the
church custom, being a call to offer prayers for the soul of the
departed. Bell-ringing was also considered a means of keeping away evil
spirits. Joseph Train, writing in 1814, refers to another practice
common in some parts of Scotland. Whenever the corpse is taken from the
house, the bed on which the deceased lay is taken from the house, and
all the straw or heather of which it was composed is taken out and
burned in a place where no beast can get at it, and in the morning the
ashes are carefully examined, believing that the footprint of the next
person of the family who will die will be seen. This practice of burning
the contents of the bed is commendable for sanitary purposes.
WITCHCRAFT, SECOND-SIGHT, AND THE BLACK ART
That the devil gave to certain persons supernatural power, which they
might exercise at their pleasure, was a belief prevalent throughout all
Scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But at the same
time this compacting with the devil was reprobated, nay more, was a
capital offence, both in civil and ecclesiastical law, and during these
two centuries thousands of persons were convicted and executed for this
crime. But during the latter part of the seventeenth century the civil
courts refused to convict upon the usual evidence, to the great alarm
and displeasure of the ecclesiastical authorities, who considered this
refusal a great national sin--a direct violation of the law of God,
which said--"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." To arrest the
punishment which this direct violation of God's written law was supposed
to incur, prayers were offered, and fasts were appointed.
As samples of the kind of evidence on which reputed witches were
convicted and executed, I extract the following from the Records of
Lanark Presbytery, 1650:--"Likewise he reported that the Commissioners
and brethren did find these poynts delated against Janet M'Birnie, one
of the suspected wom
